Hybrid Machine Learning Models for Predicting Gross CO 2 e Balance in Polish Forest Stands: A Tool for Sustainable Forest Carbon Assessment in the Circular Economy

Forest carbon assessment requires methods that capture the combined effects of stand structure, site conditions, carbon pools, operational emissions, and circular-economy processes. This study aimed to develop and optimize hybrid machine learning models for predicting the gross CO 2 e (carbon dioxide equivalent) balance of Polish forest stands using measurable stand- and site-related variables. The research was based on a primary dataset describing forest management in major Polish macroregions in 2020–2024. After data cleaning and preprocessing, multiple machine learning algorithms, including ensemble, boosting, neural, and hybrid models, were trained, validated, and tested. Model performance was assessed using standard regression metrics, overfitting diagnostics, learning curves, and SHAP (Shapley Additive Explanations). Most models achieved high predictive accuracy, with six of ten algorithms reaching R 2 values above 0.90 on the test set. The reduction in strongly correlated variables helped limit multicollinearity and excessive overlap between predictors and the target variable, supporting a more reliable interpretation of model performance. The CatBoost algorithm achieved the highest predictive performance on the test set (R 2 = 0.948), while also recording the lowest root mean squared error (RMSE = 152.242). However, the Decision Tree demonstrated the weakest generalization performance (R 2 = 0.806) on the test set. SHAP analysis identified tree height as the most influential predictor, followed by tree age, number of trees, species composition, and selected habitat features. The novelty of the study lies in integrating hybrid machine learning, interpretable modelling, and circular-economy-related carbon balance components into a single framework for rapid and operational forest carbon assessment in Polish forest stands.