Screening Agricultural Residues as Sustainable Alternative Sorbents for the Active Removal of Methylene Blue

This study investigates the potential of several sustainable agricultural by-products—including olive stones, cork, and almond shells, which are locally available in Alentejo, Portugal—as low-cost adsorbents for the removal of methylene blue (MB) from synthetic wastewater. The biomass residues were evaluated both in their raw form and after conversion into activated carbons (ACs) through chemical activation with KOH at 973 K. The produced ACs exhibited well-developed surface areas (760–1103.5 m 2 g −1 ) and porous structures (0.31–0.51 cm 3 g −1 ). The adsorbents were characterised in terms of their chemical and textural properties. Raw biomass materials presented acidic surface groups, whereas the ACs presented neutral or basic groups. Batch adsorption experiments were conducted to assess the effects of adsorbent particle size, solution pH, initial MB concentration, stirring speed, contact time, and temperature on dye removal efficiency. Among all tested materials, the ACs achieved superior MB adsorption capacities, ranging from 244.2 to 317.6 mg g −1 , compared to the untreated biomass adsorbents, which showed capacities between 34.1 and 46.4 mg g −1 . The adsorption data were best described by the Langmuir isotherm model, while the kinetic data closely followed the pseudo-second-order (PSO) model. Thermodynamic analysis revealed that MB adsorption was spontaneous and endothermic; however, the relatively low enthalpy values indicated that physical interactions contributed significantly, particularly in the case of the raw biomass adsorbents. This suggests that the PSO model may also be applicable when physical adsorption is the dominant mechanism. This work demonstrates the novel use of cork, olive stone, and almond shell biomasses and their derived ACs as sustainable adsorbents, highlighting an integrated approach that simultaneously promotes efficient wastewater treatment, waste valorisation, and circular economy-driven socio-economic development.