Determinants of Adopting Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices by Small-Scale Urban Crop Farmers in eThekwini Municipality

Climate change continues to threaten global food security. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) offers a solution to addressing this challenge in urban agriculture (UA). This paper addresses a gap in the empirical literature on decision-making about the adoption of CSA practices by examining the determinants of CSA adoption among small-scale urban crop (SSUC) farmers in eThekwini (ETH) Municipality, South Africa. Grounded in a utility theory framework, the paper draws on 412 respondents (Cochran-estimated) from a multi-stage sample design across four wards, providing reasonable coverage of SSUC farmers in ETH Municipality. While the sample size is statistically representative of SSUC farmers in ETH Municipality, it is a single metropolitan case rather than universal. The results show strong complementarities among these CSA practices, for example, between OM and CD (r ≈ 0.70, p < 0.001) and M and CD (r ≈ 0.61, p < 0.001). The multivariate probit (MVP) model predicts that the socio-economic and institutional factors age, gender, marital and employment status, education, credit access, extension contact, land tenure, and location (distance from home to farm plots) ( p < 0.05) were significant determinants of adopting CSA practices by SSUC farmers. The findings contribute to the global literature on the UA–CSA nexus, demonstrating that socio-economic and institutional factors shape the adoption of bundled CSA practices. While the findings underscore the need for integrated, custom, and UA context-specific policy and extension interventions to strengthen urban food system resilience, UA farmers, practitioners, researchers, and policymakers should apply these insights elsewhere with caution.