Optimization of Mixed Mineral–Organic Acid Leaching for Critical Rare Earth Element Extraction from Philippine Coal Fly Ash

Coal fly ash (CFA) is a promising secondary resource for rare earth element (REE) recovery. This study characterized CFA using XRF, SEM-EDS, ICP-MS, and XRD, revealing critical REE concentrations of 26.3 ppm (Nd), 4.84 ppm (Dy), 2.89 ppm (Er), 1.69 ppm (Eu), and 0.85 ppm (Tb). REEs are distributed in Al-Si-Mg-Ca-rich aluminosilicates, except Dy, which is associated with Fe-rich phases. Leaching optimization using response surface methodology (RSM) with a central composite design (CCD) identified optimal conditions at 59.5% HCl:40.5% citric acid, 85 °C, and 720 min, achieving recoveries of 94.8% (Dy), 85.2% (Er), 73.1% (Eu), 79.1% (Nd), and 85.7% (Tb). These conditions provided the best balance between recovery, acid use, and selectivity, demonstrating potential scalability for industrial applications. The quadratic model accurately predicted REE recoveries, with accuracies of 95.61% (Dy), 97.76% (Er), 97.30% (Eu), 99.07% (Nd), and 99.17% (Tb). Thermodynamic analysis showed that mineral dissolution influenced REE selectivity, with anorthite (ΔG 358 K = −348.1 kJ·mol −1 ) dissolving readily, while ankerite (ΔG 358 K = 5.49 × 10 6 kJ·mol −1 ) contributed to high selectivity, particularly for Mg. Element selectivity followed Mg > Al > Si > Fe ≥ Ca, indicating Mg- and Al-bearing phases were more susceptible, while Fe- and Ca-bearing minerals remained more resistant under mixed-acid conditions.