Revisiting the Technology–Organization–Environment Framework: Disruptive Technologies as Catalysts of Digital Transformation in the Turkish Banking Sector

Digitalization is rapidly transforming organizational strategies and structures; disruptive technologies now play a central role in driving this transformation. However, the impact of disruptive technologies on digital transformation remains a complex and context-dependent phenomenon, particularly in highly regulated sectors. This study examines the impact of disruptive technologies on digital transformation in the banking sector in Turkey within the framework of the Technology–Organization–Environment (TOE) model. Data were collected from 513 participants at the managerial level (managers, IT staff, and experts) working in public and private banks through a standardized questionnaire and analyzed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), and Hayes PROCESS Macro (Model 4) techniques. The findings show that disruptive technologies have a meaningful and direct effect on digital transformation; technological, organizational, and environmental factors play a partial mediating role in this relationship. The results reveal that this transformative effect varies across TOE dimensions depending on the context. The study contributes to the literature by extending the TOE model in a tightly regulated context and provides practical implications for managers and policymakers to develop sustainability-focused digital transformation strategies.