Source Identification of PM 2.5 and Organic Carbon During Various Haze Episodes in a Typical Industrial City by Integrating with High-Temporal-Resolution Online Measurements of Organic Molecular Tracers

Achieving sustainable air quality improvements in rapidly industrializing regions requires a clear understanding of the emission sources that drive the formation of PM 2.5 pollution. This study identified the sources of PM 2.5 and its organic carbon (OC) in Zibo, a typical industrial city in Northern China Plain, using the Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) model during five pollution episodes (P1–P5) from 26 November 2022 to 9 February 2023. A high-temporal-resolution online observation of 61 organic molecular tracers was conducted using an Aerodyne TAG stand-alone system combined with a gas chromatograph–mass spectrometer (TAG-GC/MS) system. The results indicate that during pollution episodes, PM 2.5 was contributed by 32.4% from coal combustion and 27.1% from inorganic secondary sources. Moreover, fireworks contributed 13.1% of PM 2.5 , primarily due to the extensive fireworks during the Gregorian and Lunar New Year celebrations. Similarly, coal combustion was the largest contributor to OC, followed by mobile sources and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) sources, accounting for 16.2% and 15.3%, respectively. Although fireworks contributed significantly to PM 2.5 concentrations (31.6% in P4 of 20–24 January 2023), their impact on OC was negligible. Overall, a combination of local and regional industrial combustion emissions, mobile sources, extensive residential heating during cold weather, and unfavorable meteorological conditions led to elevated secondary aerosol concentrations and the occurrence of this haze episode. The high-temporal-resolution measurements obtained using the TAG-GC/MS system, which provided more information on source-indicating organic molecules (tracers), significantly enhanced the source apportionment capability of PM 2.5 and OC. The findings provide science-based evidence for designing more sustainable emission control strategies, highlighting that the coordinated management of coal combustion, mobile emissions, and wintertime heating is essential for long-term air quality and public health benefits.