A Two-Stage Optimization of Hybrid Truck–Robot Delivery for Sustainable Urban Logistics

This study addresses the operational and environmental pressures of last-mile delivery in dense cities under limited urban logistics hubs. We propose a resource-efficient framework that repurposes existing convenience stores as robotic delivery hubs and formalize its operation via a two-stage optimization coupling truck and robot routing. In controlled simulations, and in a Seoul street network scenario, the approach reduces total completion time relative to a truck-only benchmark and lowers truck activity (truck-kilometers and curb idling), leading to lower estimated CO 2 e under standard emission factors. We also observe a nonlinear relationship between the number of hubs and efficiency, suggesting a coverage “sweet spot”. These results indicate that with minimal new infrastructure, reusing commercial assets can improve operational performance and environmental proxies; social and labor outcomes are not measured here and are left for future field evaluation.