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Phosphogypsum as the Secondary Source of Rare Earth Elements

Author

Listed:
  • Faizan Khalil

    (Department of Chemical Engineering, La Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Rome, Italy)

  • Francesca Pagnanelli

    (Department of Chemistry, La Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Roma, Italy)

  • Emanuela Moscardini

    (Eco-Recycling, Viale Palmiro Togliatti 1639, 00155 Roma, Italy)

Abstract

Phosphogypsum (PG) is a byproduct of the wet phosphoric acid (WPA) production process. Since PG originates from phosphate rock (PR), it holds various concentrations of heavy metal and radionuclide, posing an environmental threat because of its large production and long-term accumulation. In addition to toxic heavy metals, PG may also be an alternative source of rare earth elements (REEs), since over 60% of REEs in PR transfer to PG during acid digestion. With the increasing demand of phosphoric acid (PA), global PG generation is approaching 300 million tons annually. Since 1994, an estimated 6.73 billion tons of PG has been produced worldwide, with approximately 58% (approx. 3.7 billion tons) ending up in stacks. Assuming a conservative REE content of 0.1%, these stacks may hold over 3.7 million tons of REEs. This review discusses phosphoric acid production processes and the transfer of REEs from PR to PG. In addition, it also discusses the current REEs world reserves, their presence in primary and secondary sources, and their uses. The review critically evaluates the research that has been conducted so far and the recent innovations in REE recovery from PG, and discusses the challenges associated with scalability and raw material variability.

Suggested Citation

  • Faizan Khalil & Francesca Pagnanelli & Emanuela Moscardini, 2025. "Phosphogypsum as the Secondary Source of Rare Earth Elements," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(19), pages 1-40, October.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:17:y:2025:i:19:p:8828-:d:1763668
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