Structure-from-Motion Photogrammetry for Density Determination of Lump Charcoal as a Reliable Alternative to Archimedes’ Method

Lump charcoal is used in various applications, with combustion performance reliant on physical properties including apparent density. Currently, apparent density is measured by liquid displacement using Archimedes’ principle, which can yield inconsistent results for porous, irregular materials. This study investigates structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry as a non-destructive alternative for estimating the apparent density of lump charcoal. Ninety fragments from 15 commercial samples were analyzed. Mass was measured using an analytical balance, and volume was estimated independently via Archimedes’ method and photogrammetry. Apparent density was calculated as the ratio of mass to volume. Results showed strong agreement between the two methods. Mean density values ranged from 284.2 to 751.6 kg/m 3 for photogrammetry and from 267.2 to 765.7 kg/m 3 for Archimedes. No significant differences were found (Wilcoxon test, p > 0.05), and a strong correlation was observed (Spearman’s ρ = 0.94, p < 0.001). Photogrammetry also demonstrated low estimation errors, with a mean absolute error of 38.8 kg/m 3 , a percentage error of 9.9%, and a root mean squared error of 50.2 kg/m 3 . Beyond methodological innovation, this approach strengthens sustainability by supporting accurate fuel properties control, allowing better use of the resource and maximizes combustion efficiency. In this way, it contributes to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7) on affordable, reliable, and sustainable energy.