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Structure-from-Motion Photogrammetry for Density Determination of Lump Charcoal as a Reliable Alternative to Archimedes’ Method

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  • Alessio Mencarelli

    (Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padova, Viale dell’Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Italy)

  • Marco Martini

    (Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padova, Viale dell’Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Italy)

  • Rosa Greco

    (Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padova, Viale dell’Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Italy)

  • Stefano Ippoliti

    (Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padova, Viale dell’Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Italy)

  • Stefano Grigolato

    (Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padova, Viale dell’Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Italy)

Abstract

Lump charcoal is used in various applications, with combustion performance reliant on physical properties including apparent density. Currently, apparent density is measured by liquid displacement using Archimedes’ principle, which can yield inconsistent results for porous, irregular materials. This study investigates structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry as a non-destructive alternative for estimating the apparent density of lump charcoal. Ninety fragments from 15 commercial samples were analyzed. Mass was measured using an analytical balance, and volume was estimated independently via Archimedes’ method and photogrammetry. Apparent density was calculated as the ratio of mass to volume. Results showed strong agreement between the two methods. Mean density values ranged from 284.2 to 751.6 kg/m 3 for photogrammetry and from 267.2 to 765.7 kg/m 3 for Archimedes. No significant differences were found (Wilcoxon test, p > 0.05), and a strong correlation was observed (Spearman’s ρ = 0.94, p < 0.001). Photogrammetry also demonstrated low estimation errors, with a mean absolute error of 38.8 kg/m 3 , a percentage error of 9.9%, and a root mean squared error of 50.2 kg/m 3 . Beyond methodological innovation, this approach strengthens sustainability by supporting accurate fuel properties control, allowing better use of the resource and maximizes combustion efficiency. In this way, it contributes to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7) on affordable, reliable, and sustainable energy.

Suggested Citation

  • Alessio Mencarelli & Marco Martini & Rosa Greco & Stefano Ippoliti & Stefano Grigolato, 2025. "Structure-from-Motion Photogrammetry for Density Determination of Lump Charcoal as a Reliable Alternative to Archimedes’ Method," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(17), pages 1-17, September.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:17:y:2025:i:17:p:7991-:d:1742443
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Giuseppe Toscano & Elena Leoni & Carmine De Francesco & Giacomo Ciccone & Thomas Gasperini, 2023. "The Application of Image Acquisition and Processing Techniques for the Determination of Wooden Pellet Length as an Alternative to ISO 17829," Resources, MDPI, vol. 12(10), pages 1-12, October.
    2. Pierdicca, Roberto & Balestra, Mattia & Micheletti, Giulia & Felicetti, Andrea & Toscano, Giuseppe, 2022. "Semi-automatic detection and segmentation of wooden pellet size exploiting a deep learning approach," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 197(C), pages 406-416.
    3. Pereira, Allana Katiussya Silva & Longue Júnior, Dalton & Silva, Álison Moreira da & Cupertino, Gabriela Fontes Mayrinck & Souza, Elias Costa de & Delatorre, Fabíola Martins & Ucella-Filho, João Gilbe, 2025. "How pyrolysis conditions shape the structural and functional properties of charcoal? A study of tropical dry forest biomass," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 243(C).
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