Chemical Speciation and Ecological Risk of Heavy Metals in Municipal Sewage Sludge from Bangkok, Thailand

Municipal sewage sludge is a potential soil amendment rich in organic matter and nutrients, yet its reuse is often constrained by heavy metal contamination. This study evaluated six heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn) in sludge collected from seven centralized wastewater treatment plants in Bangkok, Thailand, by analyzing physicochemical properties, total metal concentrations, and chemical speciation. Three ecological risk indices, the geo-accumulation index (I geo ), risk assessment code (RAC), and potential ecological risk index (PERI), were applied to assess contamination status, mobility, and ecological threat. The sludge exhibited high levels of organic matter and essential nutrients, indicating potential for agricultural reuse; however, elevated electrical conductivity at some sites may pose salinity risks if unmanaged. Speciation analysis revealed that Cd and Zn were largely present in mobile and redox-sensitive fractions, Cr and Pb were primarily in stable residual forms, and Cu and Ni occurred in moderately mobile forms influenced by environmental conditions. Across all indices, Cd consistently posed the highest ecological risk, followed by Zn, in a site-dependent manner, while Cr and Pb represented low risk. These findings provide a clearer understanding of metal behavior in sewage sludge and underscore the importance of integrating chemical speciation with multi-index risk assessment in sludge management. Incorporating such approaches into national guidelines, particularly in countries lacking established heavy metal limits, can strengthen monitoring frameworks, guide safe and sustainable reuse, and support regulatory development in contexts with limited monitoring data.