Multi-Source Data Integration for Sustainable Management Zone Delineation in Precision Agriculture

Accurate delineation of within-field management zones (MZs) is essential for implementing precision agriculture, particularly in spatially heterogeneous environments. This study evaluates the spatiotemporal consistency and practical value of MZs derived from three complementary data sources: electromagnetic conductivity (EM38-MK2), basic soil chemical properties (pH, humus, P 2 O 5 , K 2 O, nitrogen), and vegetation/surface indices (NDVI, SAVI, LCI, BSI) derived from Sentinel-2 imagery. Using kriging, fuzzy k-means clustering, percentile-based classification, and Weighted Overlay Analysis (WOA), MZs were generated for a five-year period (2018–2022), with 2–8 zone classes. Stability and agreement were assessed using the Cohen Kappa, Jaccard, and Dice coefficients on systematic grid samples. Results showed that EM38-MK2 and humus-weighted BSP data produced the most consistent zones (Kappa > 0.90). Sentinel-2 indices demonstrated strong alignment with subsurface data (r > 0.85), offering a low-cost alternative in data-scarce settings. Optimal zoning was achieved with 3–4 classes, balancing spatial coherence and interpretability. These findings underscore the importance of multi-source data integration for robust and scalable MZ delineation and offer actionable guidelines for both data-rich and resource-limited farming systems. This approach promotes sustainable agriculture by improving input efficiency and allowing for targeted, site-specific field management.