The Sustainable Remediation of Antimony(III)-Contaminated Water Using Iron and Manganese-Modified Graphene Oxide–Chitosan Composites: A Comparative Study of Kinetic and Isotherm Models

This study introduces a series of Fe/Mn-GOCS composites using high-temperature impregnation with graphene oxide and chitosan as substrates, modified by diverse manganese salts, including MnCl 2 ∙4H 2 O, KMnO 4 , and MnSO 4 . Among these, FeCl 2 /MnSO 4 -GOCS demonstrated the highest adsorption capacity for Sb(III), peaking at 57.69 mg/g. The adsorption performance was extensively evaluated under various conditions, such as different initial concentrations, pH levels, solid–liquid ratios, and adsorption durations. It was observed that when the Fe/Mn molar ratio exceeded 4:1, there was a notable decrease in both the adsorption capacity and removal rate. Kinetic analyses using the pseudo-second-order model revealed a better fit (R 2 > 0.99) compared to the pseudo-first-order model, indicating that chemisorption dominated the adsorption process. Additionally, isothermal modeling highlighted the efficiency of Fe/Mn-GOCS, particularly in high-concentration environments, with the Sips model demonstrating the best fit, integrating characteristics of both Langmuir and Freundlich models. These results not only offer a robust theoretical and practical basis for efficient Sb(III) removal but also underscore the potential of multi-metal-modified adsorbents as sustainable solutions for environmental remediation.