Loss and Early Recovery of Biomass and Soil Organic Carbon in Restored Mangroves After Paspalum vaginatum Invasion in West Africa

Invasive plant species pose an increasing threat to mangroves globally. This study assessed the impact of Paspalum vaginatum invasion on carbon loss and early recovery following four years of restoration in a mangrove forest with Rhizophora racemosa in Benin. Organic carbon was quantified in the total biomass, including both aboveground and belowground components, as well as in the soil to a depth of −50 cm. In addition, soil gas fluxes of CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O were measured. Three sites were evaluated: a conserved mangrove, a site degraded by P. vaginatum , and the same site post-restoration via hydrological rehabilitation and reforestation. Invasion significantly reduced carbon storage, especially in soil, due to lower biomass, incorporation of low C/N ratio organic residues, and compaction. Restoration recovered 7.8% of the total biomass carbon compared to the conserved mangrove site, although soil organic carbon did not rise significantly in the short term. However, improvements in deep soil C/N ratios (15–30 and 30–50 cm) suggest enhanced soil organic matter recalcitrance linked to R. racemosa reforestation. Soil CO 2 emissions dropped by 60% at the restored site, underscoring restoration’s potential to mitigate early carbon loss. These results highlight the need to control invasive species and suggest that restoration can generate additional social benefits.