The Landscape of Fear and Wild Boar ( Sus scrofa ) Spatial Use in a Peri-Urban Area from West-Central Spain

The spatial distribution of predation risk creates a landscape of fear that shapes animal behavior. Humans are typically perceived as predators, leading wildlife to adjust their space use accordingly. However, adaptable species like wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) can thrive in human-dominated landscapes such as cities, where they may generate conflicts. In this study, we investigated how the landscape of fear influences wild boar presence in a Mediterranean peri-urban environment in Cáceres (Spain). We quantified wild boar presence (WBp) using 112 footprint traps across three seasons and characterized fear-related variables through vegetation cover and an urbanization gradient derived from distances to the city center and urban edge. Generalized linear mixed models showed that WBp was consistently higher in Cover areas than in Open areas, while the urbanization gradient had no significant effect. Spatial modeling further revealed more localized aggregation in Cover areas. These results indicate that wild boar preferentially use vegetated refuge zones, although seasonal variation suggests that resource distribution may also shape their movements. Understanding how wild boar respond to fine-scale landscape features has key implications for managing their populations and mitigating human–wildlife conflicts in Mediterranean peri-urban contexts.