Conceptual Evolution, Governance Transformation, and Spatial Planning Approaches for Protected Area–Community Conservation–Livelihood Trade-Offs

As protected areas (PAs) expand globally at an accelerating rate, reconciling biodiversity conservation with socioeconomic development in adjacent communities has become a critical challenge for landscape sustainability. This systematic review synthesizes literature (1990–2025) to trace three interconnected transitions: (1) the conceptual evolution from exclusionary to inclusive PA–community paradigms, grounded in shifting perceptions of cultural landscapes; (2) the governance transformation from tokenistic participation to power-sharing co-management frameworks; and (3) the spatial planning progression from fragmented “island” models to integrated protected area networks (PANs) leveraging ecological corridors. Our analysis reveals that disconnected PA–community relationships exacerbate conservation–development conflicts, particularly where cultural landscapes are undervalued. A key finding is that cultural–natural synergies act as pivotal mediators for conservation efficacy, necessitating context-adaptive governance approaches. This study advances landscape planning theory by proposing a rural landscape network framework that integrates settlement patches, biocultural corridors, and PA matrices to optimize ecological connectivity while empowering communities. Empirical insights from China highlight pathways to harmonize stringent protection with rural revitalization, underscoring the capacity of PANs to bridge spatial and socio-institutional divides. This synthesis provides a transformative lens for policymakers to scale locally grounded solutions across global conservation landscapes.