Assessment and Spatial Optimization of Cultural Ecosystem Services in the Central Urban Area of Lhasa

Assessment of cultural ecosystem services (CESs) is a key component in advancing the sustainable development of urban ecosystems. Mapping the spatial distribution of CESs provides spatially explicit insights for urban landscape planning. However, most assessments lack regional adaptability, particularly in cities with pronounced environmental and cultural heterogeneity. To address this gap, this study focused on the central urban area of Lhasa, using communities as units to develop a tailored CES assessment framework. The framework integrated the MaxEnt model with multi-source indicators to analyze the spatial distribution of five CES categories and their relationships with environmental variables. Spatial statistics and classification at community level informed the CES spatial optimization strategies. Results indicated that high-value CES areas were predominantly concentrated in the old city cluster, typified by Barkhor and Jibenggang subdistricts, following an east–west spatial pattern along the Lhasa River. Distance to tourist spot contributed 78.3% to cultural heritage, 86.1% to spirit and religion, and 42.2% to ecotourism and aesthetic services, making it the most influential environmental variable. At the community level, CESs exhibited a distinct spatial gradient, with higher values in the central area and lower values in the eastern and western peripheries. For the ecotourism and aesthetic category, 61.47% of the community area was classified as low service, whereas only 1.48% and 7.33% were identified as excellent and high. Moreover, communities within subdistricts such as Barkhor and Zhaxi demonstrated excellent service across four CES categories, with notably lower performance in the health category. This study presents a quantitative and adaptable framework and planning guidance to support the sustainable development of CESs in cities with similar characteristics.