Extreme Capital Structure and Firm Performance in Emerging Economies: The Moderating Role of Liquidity

This study examines the moderating role of liquidity in the relationship between extreme capital structure and firm performance among listed firms in emerging markets. It is motivated by the need to better understand how financing constraints and liquidity management influence firm performance in environments characterised by high financial frictions and limited access to external capital. Extreme capital structure is defined as firms maintaining very low levels of debt, measured using thresholds of 1% (ultra-low debt) and 5% for both long-term debt and total debt. The analysis is based on a panel dataset of non-financial listed firms over the period 2006–2024 and employs a dynamic panel System Generalised Method of Moments (System GMM) complemented by a Random Effects model for robustness. Empirical results indicate that liquidity has a meaningful and predominantly positive moderating effect. This is observed when firms maintain extremely low long-term debt (1% threshold) and low long-term debt (5% threshold). Liquidity enhances firm performance. This effect is strongest for return on assets (ROA) and return on equity (ROE). The effect on Tobin’s Q is weaker but remains generally positive. These findings highlight the strategic importance of liquidity in improving profitability and financial resilience under conservative financing structures. However, the findings are limited to listed non-financial firms in emerging markets and may not be generalizable to SMEs or unlisted firms. Future research could explore the threshold at which liquidity ceases to generate benefits or begins to produce diminishing returns in ultra-low leverage contexts.