Terrorism, Perceived Threat, and Support for Surveillance: A Virtual Reality Experiment on Cyber vs. Conventional Terrorism

Governments worldwide are increasingly adopting intrusive surveillance measures to counter terrorism. However, the psychological and public health consequences of exposure to terrorism remain underexplored. This study examines how exposure to cyber and conventional terrorism affects perceived national threat and support for surveillance policies, using a controlled virtual reality experiment in which participants were immersed in realistic simulations of lethal terror attacks targeting critical railway infrastructure in Israel. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: cyber ( N = 59), conventional ( N = 59), or control ( N = 45). Outcomes were standardized, but the framing differed by type of attack. Findings show that perceived national threat perceptions are a key mechanism linking exposure to terrorism to surveillance attitudes. At lower threat levels, participants differentiated between cyber and conventional attacks. In contrast, heightened threats led to uniform support for expansive surveillance regardless of the attack modality. Results demonstrate that exposure to terrorism, including cyberattacks on critical infrastructure, can activate psychological responses with implications for public resilience and policy attitudes, shaping preferences concerning privacy and security. These findings underscore the broader societal and public health relevance of understanding how people react to evolving security threats that disrupt essential systems such as transportation, energy, and healthcare.