Environmental Assessment of Closed-Loop Regeneration of Spent LFP Batteries Based on Factory-Level Inventory Data

The rapid expansion of electric vehicles is generating large volumes of spent lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries, yet the environmental performance of closed-loop regeneration under industrial conditions remains insufficiently quantified. Here we develop a life cycle assessment of a closed-loop recycling–regeneration pathway using factory-level inventory data from an integrated plant, benchmarking 1 kg of regenerated LFP cathode-active material (CAM) at the plant gate against virgin LFP CAM (ecoinvent v3.10; ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint). Relative to virgin production, the closed-loop route reduces global warming potential (GWP100) by 7.73% (from 6.59 to 6.08 kg CO 2 -eq kg −1 CAM), fossil fuel potential (FFP) by 3.80%, surplus ore potential (SOP) by 97.57%, and carcinogenic human toxicity (HTPc) by 36.72%—a clear but heterogeneous advantage, large for mineral resources and modest for climate. Iron phosphate and lithium carbonate recovery dominate the burdens, with H 2 O 2 being the largest single GWP100 contributor (23.7%) and the most sensitive inventory parameter, while the SOP advantage is highly robust. Grid-decarbonization scenarios widen the GWP100 reduction to 22.4% under near-zero-carbon electricity. The carbon competitiveness of closed-loop LFP regeneration is therefore governed by the balance between avoided virgin-material burdens and reagent- and energy-intensive recovery operations.