Competing Demands: A Critical Review of Stakeholder Accountability Models in Global Higher Education

Recent major crises of integrity in India's high-stakes national exams, including leaks of NEET UG papers in 2024 and 2026, have provoked a strong wave of public reaction. There have been student protests and calls for resignation of Government ministers. Also, a party called Cockroach Janata Party (CJP) was formed and is campaigning against systemic irregularities. This focused literature review synthesizes research by 47 authors to delineate a framework of accountability in higher education. The review is organized along five thematic lines: key components of accountability as a governing principle; distribution of accountability within the ecosystem of higher education; integrity of exams and their effect on public trust; assurance of quality and accreditation as accountability mechanisms; and the intersection of accountability with employability relevance and institutional governance. Drawing on scholarly work from India, South Asia, Europe, Africa, and Southeast Asia, this review shows that accountability goes beyond security measures and punitive actions. Accountability is a complex framework that includes financial transparency, ethical governance, freedom for scholars, stakeholder engagement, and evidence-based governance. The review provides a comprehensive framework for accountability in higher education organized around a conceptual table that identifies various dimensions of accountability, actors, and supporting evidence. This framework seeks to support policy reform efforts that encompass not only the integrity of examinations but also the more fundamental systemic issues of quality, equity, autonomy, and public trust in higher education systems.