Socioeconomic Determinants of Perceived Exposure to Noise and Pollution: Urban–Rural Differences across European Countries

Environmental issues and climate change pose a growing threat to public health and longevity across Europe, with air and noise pollution contributing significantly to premature mortality and diminished quality of life. In this paper, we investigate perceived environmental risks. The probit method is used to estimate the probability of perceived exposure to noise or pollution controlling for individual and household characteristics. The dataset is the 2023 Survey of Income and Living Conditions for European Union countries (except Germany, Ireland, Slovenia and the Netherlands) and Serbia. Our results reveal significant heterogeneity between European countries; however, in all but one country, living in cities, towns or suburbs vs. living in rural areas has a significant influence on the probability of perceived exposure to noise or pollution. The marginal effect for urban areas ranges from 2% in Slovakia to 40% in Greece. There is no significant difference between genders. Elderly people have a lower probability of perceived exposure. When compared to tenants, homeowners have a lower probability of perceived exposure, suggesting that individuals chose to buy property for living in areas with fewer environmental problems. In the majority of countries, people at-risk-of-poverty have a higher probability of perceived exposure to noise or pollution. In Serbia and Latvia, the effect is opposite: poverty is higher in rural than in urban areas, and the former areas have lower perceived exposure to noise or pollution. Our results suggest that effective policy measures are necessary to reduce noise and pollution in urban areas all around Europe. Additionally, policies for reducing urban-rural inequalities within countries could have a direct effect on a more equal distribution of risks between cities, towns and rural areas.