Comparative Performance Indicators of Paratransit Services in Developing Regions: Evaluating Load Factor, Headway, and Passenger Waiting Times

Paratransit networks in developing regions frequently operate without structured timetables, leading to highly variable service quality across different territorial corridors. This study presents a comparative performance evaluation of five intercity paratransit (AKDP) routes in Gorontalo Province, Indonesia, by benchmarking three critical operational indicators: Load Factor (LF), vehicle headway (H), and passenger waiting times (Wp). Field data were collected using synchronized roadside screenline tracking and on-board passenger logging across corridors with varying levels of urbanization. The empirical results reveal severe operational polarization: the high-density Kota–Isimu commuter corridor exhibits an over-saturated supply framework with an average headway of 8.5 minutes, a service frequency of 7.05 vehicles/hour, and a critically low asset utilization rate represented by a 28% average Load Factor. Conversely, peripheral corridors like Kota–Taludaa suffer from severe undersupply, exhibiting a prolonged average headway of 75.0 minutes, an unreliable service frequency of 0.80 vehicles/hour, and a low Load Factor of 14% due to long terminal delays that drive passengers to switch to other modes. Long-distance regional routes like Kota–Tilamuta achieve the most stable equilibrium, recording an average Load Factor of 61% with an average headway of 45.0 minutes. Cross-corridor analysis shows that without centralized regulation, individual operators default to predatory terminal holding or dangerous on-road pacing. This study concludes that a one-size-fits-all transit policy is ineffective for mixed-density networks. We propose a differentiated, corridor-specific policy framework to optimize regional vehicle allocations and stabilize passenger waiting structures.