Non-fungible tokens as a bridge for integrated healthcare supply chains: an innovative approach focused on interoperability

This study tackles the ongoing challenge of interoperability within information systems, focusing on blockchain-enabled healthcare supply chains. We introduce a novel approach that uses non-fungible tokens (NFTs) to connect different blockchain systems. These NFTs serve as unique identifiers, allowing data integration while maintaining the confidentiality and decentralization of medical data. The model is validated through laboratory experiments and performance assessments. Throughput and latency are measured with results showing roughly 100 transactions per second and a latency of about 1.25 s. Scalability is evaluated by increasing system requests and transaction load. The system handles increased volume, but as it reaches high levels, such as 5000 transactions per second, response times slow considerably. Storage performance is tested with the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS), showing response times between 3 and 15 ms and a maximum throughput of 50.92 requests per second. Data embedding techniques are examined using SSIM and PSNR metrics, along with encryption and decryption durations, comparisons among LSB, DCT, and DWT algorithms, and assessment of data size impact. Smart contract efficiency is analyzed through deployment, minting, and updating processes, including confirmation times below one minute and gas usage analysis. The results support the ongoing discussion on blockchain interoperability in healthcare. The study also advocates a move toward a Selective Trust Architecture that shifts control from providers to users, relevant to metaverse technologies. Additionally, it offers valuable insights to practitioners working with decentralized healthcare supply chains.