Clarifying the Intersections of Visibility, Traceability, and Transparency: A Data-Centric Framework for Supply Chain Management

Global supply chains (SCs) face critical vulnerabilities from disruptions, regulatory changes, and sustainability pressures, increasing the need for robust data and information processing capabilities to support end-to-end coordination and accountability. Visibility, traceability, and transparency across end-to-end SCs are intended to address these challenges, yet they are often used interchangeably. This creates ambiguity about which SC data elements, such as demand patterns, inventory levels and material flow records, are required and how these data should be analysed to operationalise these capabilities effectively. This study conducts a combined narrative review of 32 conceptual definitions and a systematic review of 72 empirical studies to develop a data-centric framework that clarifies the concepts of SC visibility, traceability, and transparency from a data perspective. Findings reveal that: (i) visibility requires real-time operational data to support operational decisions; (ii) traceability demands historical, product-level data to enable retrospective analysis (tactical decisions); and (iii) transparency necessitates contextual disclosure data for stakeholder accountability (strategic decisions). This research contributes to the Operations Management field by defining SC visibility, traceability, and transparency as distinct information-processing capabilities enabled by specific data requirements. A proposed data-centric framework supports SC managers in identifying data gaps, aligning data requirements and pertinent investments with strategic objectives, and designing SC stakeholder-specific implementation pathways.