Examining the digital divide in online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from undergraduates at 28 research universities

Using a survey of 11,501 undergraduates from 28 research universities in China, this study examined disparities in the effectiveness of online learning across undergraduates with diverse family backgrounds. Our results indicate that disadvantaged students (rural hukou status, first-generation college students, and students whose mothers held underprivileged occupations) were more likely to perceive online education as ineffective. Potential reasons for the digital divide were explored. The findings indicate that disadvantaged students encounter significantly greater challenges in their online learning experience. Among these obstacles, family-related challenges (such as the absence of essential tools and resources for online learning and distractions within their learning environment) had a more significant impact on disadvantaged students than individual-related issues (reduced learning motivation, limited familiarity with educational tools, and diminished engagement in the learning process), or school-related issues (such as course scheduling, teacher-student interactions, student-student interactions, and learning support). This study is one of the pioneering efforts to shed light on the digital divide issues and comprehensively understand the underlying factors at play in research universities.