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Rethinking AI anthropomorphism: A holistic conceptualization and scale across AI systems and service contexts

Author

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  • Xu, Yingwei (Wayne)
  • Chi, Christina G.
  • Gursoy, Dogan
  • Cai, Ruiying (Raine)

Abstract

Building on Gestalt theory, this research introduces a holistic framework for defining artificial intelligence (AI) anthropomorphism, which guides the development of a parsimonious Scale of AI Anthropomorphism (SAIA). Through a systematic literature review, seven focus group discussions, and rigorous six-step scale development procedures, the research conceptualizes and validates a multidimensional framework that captures both external and internal human-like traits, including virtues and vices of anthropomorphic AI. Based on 2944 valid responses from five studies, a 40-item, six-dimensional parsimonious SAIA was developed, namely, human-like appearance, cognitive competency, adaptive capacity, social intelligence, morality, and fallibility. The scale demonstrated strong psychometric properties through comprehensive qualitative and quantitative validation. The SAIA serves as a robust tool for assessing the anthropomorphism of both tangible (e.g., robots) and intangible (e.g., chatbots) AI across normal service and service failure contexts.

Suggested Citation

  • Xu, Yingwei (Wayne) & Chi, Christina G. & Gursoy, Dogan & Cai, Ruiying (Raine), 2026. "Rethinking AI anthropomorphism: A holistic conceptualization and scale across AI systems and service contexts," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 85(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:teinso:v:85:y:2026:i:c:s0160791x25003793
    DOI: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.103189
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