IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/teinso/v85y2026ics0160791x25003549.html

Driving out risk: A taxonomy of factors influencing perceived safety in automated vehicles and the role of knowledge-based variation

Author

Listed:
  • Wu, Xinyi
  • Mora, Luca
  • McTigue, Clare

Abstract

Despite ongoing technological advancements, public acceptance of automated vehicles (AVs) remains limited, with perceived safety (PSAV) emerging as a pivotal determinant of trust and adoption. While prior research has identified factors such as cybersecurity, legal accountability, and functional performance as influential, these elements are often examined in isolation and without a unifying framework. Furthermore, the role of individuals' Knowledge Levels of AVs (KLAV) in shaping the salience of safety concerns remains underexplored. This study addresses these gaps through a qualitative investigation involving 66 interviews with members of the public and AV experts in the United Kingdom. We develop an empirically grounded taxonomy of PSAV comprising thirteen factors, organized into three overarching categories: Technological Safety, Psychological Safety, and Social Safety. Our findings suggest that perceptions of safety are not uniform but vary with participants’ KLAV, which is associated with differences in how safety concerns are interpreted and prioritized. The study advances theoretical understanding by reconceptualizing PSAV as a multidimensional and knowledge-sensitive construct. Practically, the taxonomy and KLAV-based insights offer actionable guidance for AV research, public engagement, and anticipatory governance, supporting more inclusive and socially responsive pathways for AV deployment.

Suggested Citation

  • Wu, Xinyi & Mora, Luca & McTigue, Clare, 2026. "Driving out risk: A taxonomy of factors influencing perceived safety in automated vehicles and the role of knowledge-based variation," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 85(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:teinso:v:85:y:2026:i:c:s0160791x25003549
    DOI: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.103164
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160791X25003549
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.103164?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to

    for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Lee, Dasom & Hess, David J. & Heldeweg, Michiel A., 2022. "Safety and privacy regulations for unmanned aerial vehicles: A multiple comparative analysis," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 71(C).
    2. Hussain, Qinaat & Alhajyaseen, Wael K.M. & Adnan, Muhammad & Almallah, Mustafa & Almukdad, Abdulkarim & Alqaradawi, Mohammed, 2021. "Autonomous vehicles between anticipation and apprehension: Investigations through safety and security perceptions," Transport Policy, Elsevier, vol. 110(C), pages 440-451.
    3. Nordhoff, Sina & Stapel, Jork & van Arem, Bart & Happee, Riender, 2020. "Passenger opinions of the perceived safety and interaction with automated shuttles: A test ride study with ‘hidden’ safety steward," Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, Elsevier, vol. 138(C), pages 508-524.
    4. Tian Guan & Yi Han & Nan Kang & Ningye Tang & Xu Chen & Shu Wang, 2022. "An Overview of Vehicular Cybersecurity for Intelligent Connected Vehicles," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(9), pages 1-17, April.
    5. Wu, Min & Yuen, Kum Fai & Li, Kevin X., 2024. "Forecasting the evolution of urban mobility: The influence of anthropomorphism and social responsiveness in the transition from human to automated driving," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 79(C).
    6. Boada, Júlia Pareto & Maestre, Begoña Román & Genís, Carme Torras, 2021. "The ethical issues of social assistive robotics: A critical literature review," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 67(C).
    7. Reis, João, 2024. "Customer service through AI-Powered human-robot relationships: Where are we now? The case of Henn na cafe, Japan," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 77(C).
    8. Huang, Lei & Ladikas, Miltos & Schippl, Jens & He, Guangxi & Hahn, Julia, 2023. "Knowledge mapping of an artificial intelligence application scenario: A bibliometric analysis of the basic research of data-driven autonomous vehicles," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 75(C).
    9. Stilgoe, Jack & Owen, Richard & Macnaghten, Phil, 2013. "Developing a framework for responsible innovation," Research Policy, Elsevier, vol. 42(9), pages 1568-1580.
    10. Tom Cohen & Clémence Cavoli, 2019. "Automated vehicles: exploring possible consequences of government (non)intervention for congestion and accessibility," Transport Reviews, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 39(1), pages 129-151, January.
    11. Fagnant, Daniel J. & Kockelman, Kara, 2015. "Preparing a nation for autonomous vehicles: opportunities, barriers and policy recommendations," Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, Elsevier, vol. 77(C), pages 167-181.
    12. Park, C Whan & Mothersbaugh, David L & Feick, Lawrence, 1994. "Consumer Knowledge Assessment," Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Research Inc., vol. 21(1), pages 71-82, June.
    13. Marianne Ryghaug & Ivana Subotički & Emilia Smeds & Timo von Wirth & Aline Scherrer & Chris Foulds & Rosie Robison & Luca Bertolini & Eda Beyazit İnce & Ralf Brand & Galit Cohen-Blankshtain & Marc Dij, 2023. "A Social Sciences and Humanities research agenda for transport and mobility in Europe: key themes and 100 research questions," Transport Reviews, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 43(4), pages 755-779, July.
    14. Reis, João & Melão, Nuno & Salvadorinho, Juliana & Soares, Bárbara & Rosete, Ana, 2020. "Service robots in the hospitality industry: The case of Henn-na hotel, Japan," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 63(C).
    15. Flynn, Leisa Reinecke & Goldsmith, Ronald E., 1999. "A Short, Reliable Measure of Subjective Knowledge," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 46(1), pages 57-66, September.
    16. Araz Taeihagh & Hazel Si Min Lim, 2019. "Governing autonomous vehicles: emerging responses for safety, liability, privacy, cybersecurity, and industry risks," Transport Reviews, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 39(1), pages 103-128, January.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Wang, Fei & Zhang, Zhentai & Lin, Shoufu, 2023. "Purchase intention of Autonomous vehicles and industrial Policies: Evidence from a national survey in China," Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, Elsevier, vol. 173(C).
    2. Pel, Bonno & Raven, Rob & van Est, Rinie, 2020. "Transitions governance with a sense of direction: synchronization challenges in the case of the dutch ‘Driverless Car’ transition," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 160(C).
    3. Olin, Janne J. & Mladenović, Miloš N., 2024. "Unpacking the cultural aspects of transport automation governance in Finland: An interview study," Journal of Transport Geography, Elsevier, vol. 117(C).
    4. Khan, Shah Khalid & Shiwakoti, Nirajan & Stasinopoulos, Peter & Warren, Matthew, 2023. "Cybersecurity regulatory challenges for connected and automated vehicles – State-of-the-art and future directions," Transport Policy, Elsevier, vol. 143(C), pages 58-71.
    5. Zeng, Ying & Liu, Xinyi & Zhang, Xinyuan & Li, Zhiyong, 2024. "Retrospective of interdisciplinary research on robot services (1954–2023): From parasitism to symbiosis," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 78(C).
    6. Catherine Viot & Juliette Passebois-Ducros, 2010. "Wine brands or branded wines? The specificity of the French market in terms of the brand," Post-Print hal-01803728, HAL.
    7. Li, Dun & Huang, Youlin & Qian, Lixian, 2022. "Potential adoption of robotaxi service: The roles of perceived benefits to multiple stakeholders and environmental awareness," Transport Policy, Elsevier, vol. 126(C), pages 120-135.
    8. Zarbakhshnia, Navid & Ma, Zhenliang, 2024. "Critical success factors for the adoption of AVs in sustainable urban transportation," Transport Policy, Elsevier, vol. 156(C), pages 62-76.
    9. Feucht, Yvonne & Zander, Katrin, 2017. "Consumers’ attitudes on carbon footprint labelling. Results of the SUSDIET project," Thünen Working Paper 266396, Johann Heinrich von Thünen-Institut (vTI), Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries.
    10. Kwon, Kyoung-Nan & Lee, Jinkook, 2009. "The effects of reference point, knowledge, and risk propensity on the evaluation of financial products," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 62(7), pages 719-725, July.
    11. Hatice Aydýn & Cemal Zehir, 2017. "What Type Relationship Do We Have with Our Brands? Is the Name of this Relationship Brand Romance?," International Review of Management and Marketing, International Review of Management and Marketing, vol. 7(2), pages 272-283.
    12. Fosch-Villaronga, Eduard & Calleja, Carlos José & Drukarch, Hadassah & Torricelli, Diego, 2023. "How can ISO 13482:2014 account for the ethical and social considerations of robotic exoskeletons?," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 75(C).
    13. Hyun Joo Kwon & Mira Ahn & Jiyun Kang, 2021. "The Effects of Knowledge Types on Consumer Decision Making for Non-Toxic Housing Materials and Products," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(19), pages 1-14, October.
    14. Liu, Peng & Zhang, Yawen & He, Zhen, 2019. "The effect of population age on the acceptable safety of self-driving vehicles," Reliability Engineering and System Safety, Elsevier, vol. 185(C), pages 341-347.
    15. Liu, Zhaocai & Chen, Zhibin & He, Yi & Song, Ziqi, 2021. "Network user equilibrium problems with infrastructure-enabled autonomy," Transportation Research Part B: Methodological, Elsevier, vol. 154(C), pages 207-241.
    16. Lavaei Adaryani, Rasool & Palouj, Mojtaba & Karbasioun, Mostafa & Asadi, Ali & Gholami, Hesamedin & Kianirad, Ali & Joodi Damirchi, Milad, 2024. "Antecedents of blockchain adoption in the poultry supply chain: An extended UTAUT model," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 202(C).
    17. Nadafianshahamabadi, Razieh & Tayarani, Mohammad & Rowangould, Gregory, 2021. "A closer look at urban development under the emergence of autonomous vehicles: Traffic, land use and air quality impacts," Journal of Transport Geography, Elsevier, vol. 94(C).
    18. Catherine Viot, 2012. "Subjective knowledge, product attributes and consideration set : the wine case," Post-Print hal-01803724, HAL.
    19. Lin, Zhibin & Filieri, Raffaele, 2015. "Airline passengers’ continuance intention towards online check-in services: The role of personal innovativeness and subjective knowledge," Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, Elsevier, vol. 81(C), pages 158-168.
    20. Fink, Matthias & Maresch, Daniela & Gartner, Johannes, 2023. "Programmed to do good: The categorical imperative as a key to moral behavior of social robots," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 196(C).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:teinso:v:85:y:2026:i:c:s0160791x25003549. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.journals.elsevier.com/technology-in-society .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.