Beyond direct effects: Socioeconomic and accessibility factors as moderators in the relationship between railway inequality dimensions and usage barriers in intercity train services

This study examines how socioeconomic and accessibility factors moderate the relationship between multidimensional railway inequality and usage barriers in developing country contexts. While extensive research has documented direct relationships between railway infrastructure development and accessibility outcomes, limited attention has been given to understanding how these relationships vary across different population segments and accessibility conditions. Using structural equation modeling and multi-group analysis of data from 1677 intercity railway users across Thailand's seven regions, this research investigates the moderating roles of transport modes, station location, age, gender, and income level in shaping how railway inequality dimensions influence accessibility barriers, safety concerns, and affordability challenges. The findings confirm that railway inequality significantly affects usage barriers through seven interconnected dimensions, with economic inequality emerging as the dominant factor. These findings challenge traditional approaches to transport equity that emphasize demographic targeting, instead advocating for universal improvements in multimodal transport integration and first-and-last-mile connectivity. The research provides critical insights for policymakers in developing countries, suggesting that investments in comprehensive feeder transport systems and age-sensitive accessibility programs may more effectively reduce railway inequality than conventional income-based subsidies or gender-specific interventions alone.