Mechanisms of ecosystem function enhancement under land ecosystem restoration patterns and responses to multiple scenarios: A complex network approach

Implementing high-quality development strategies requires the enhancement of ecosystem functions (EFs). Despite significant progress in the ecological restoration on the Loess Plateau in China, the response of EFs to different land ecosystem restoration patterns (LERPs) during the artificial vegetation restoration remains unclear. This study introduced a social-ecological network approach that integrates LERPs analysis with spatially explicit EFs assessments to identify the patterns driving EF enhancement, reveal their underlying mechanisms, and assess responses to future climate change in representative watersheds of the Loess Plateau. The results show that the expansion of restoration areas has substantially improved EFs over the past two decades. All eight types of LERPs were significantly affected by kNDVI, with climate emerging as the key driver of network clustering and stability across multiple patterns. Moreover, LERPs that prioritize improving existing natural ecosystems were found to strengthen network structure and function more effectively than agricultural-to-natural conversion. Nevertheless, EFs were projected to decline significantly in the future if current land use patterns continue. Such declines could undermine network multifunctionality and stability by weakening node connections and reducing local connectivity. This study provides insights into the mechanisms driving EF enhancement and offers a scientific foundation for promoting ecosystem sustainability to address the challenge of ecological degradation and climate change.