Collective payments for ecosystem services: A framework for examining the interplay between objectives and collective elements

Collective Payments for Ecosystem Services (cPES) have gained prominence as an approach to address limitations inherent in conventional Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes. This empirically grounded conceptual study explores the objectives underlying the adoption of collective approaches, identifies key collective elements in cPES initiatives, and conceptualizes their interrelations. Through a structured literature review, expert workshop, and expert survey, we developed and refined a framework illustrating the diversity in cPES compositions. Particular attention is given to the German context, where collective agri-environmental and climate schemes, a sub-category of cPES, are currently being piloted. Our findings highlight one ecological objective, facilitating landscape connectivity; economic objectives including transaction cost reduction, flexibility, and economies of scale; and social objectives such as fostering social cohesion and learning as well as considerations related to land tenure. These objectives correspond to sixteen identified collective elements, each linked to one or multiple objectives. The resulting framework offers a comprehensive conceptualization of cPES practices and their diversity. It provides a robust foundation for advancing both the theoretical understanding and practical application of cPES approaches.