Can protected area networks effectively conserve ecosystem services at the landscape scale? Evidence from Wuyishan Biodiversity Priority Conservation Area, China

Effective protected area networks are essential for achieving global conservation targets. Previous studies have mainly examined conservation outcomes within protected areas and their spillover effects on buffer zones. However, the role of protected areas in conserving landscape-scale ecosystem services remains largely unclear. In this study, we assessed ecosystem services conservation outcomes within protected areas, buffer zones, and the broader landscape in a global biodiversity hotspot (the Wuyishan Biodiversity Priority Conservation Areas) by applying the propensity score matching methods. Using a 35-year dynamic mapping of ecosystem services, we identified ecosystem services priority zones and conservation gaps across different levels. Key findings include: (1) Ecosystem services conservation outcomes differed between protected areas and non-protected areas; (2) Protected areas indirectly enhanced ecosystem services conservation outcomes in adjacent non-protected areas, though this effect fluctuated over time; and (3) The current protected area network (covered 8.82 % of the study area) protected 34 % of ecosystem services priority zones. Our findings demonstrate the effectiveness of landscape-scale ecosystem service conservation and underscore the importance of integrating protected areas into wider landscapes to enhance socio-ecological resilience. The study directly informs the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, particularly Target 3 on protected area effectiveness and landscape integration, and Target 11 on maintaining ecosystem services.