Enhancing engagement: A European meta-analysis of forest owner preferences in voluntary agreements for the provision of biodiversity and ecosystem services

European forests are increasingly expected to provide a wide range of biodiversity and ecosystem services (BES) beyond timber production, positioning non-industrial private forest (NIPF) owners (hereafter, “forest owners”) as key contributors. An emerging question is how to engage forest owners in the needed forest management shift. To better understand the drivers of forest owner participation in voluntary agreements, we conducted a meta-regression analysis of 24 studies from survey-based, stated, or actual participation data, encompassing 28 distinct datasets and 571 observations from 12 European countries. The findings suggest that certain contract designs substantially enhance forest owner participation: short- and mid-term contracts of 1 to 30 years (as opposed to longer-term agreements), the inclusion of withdrawal clauses, non-restrictive management requirements, and higher compensation levels all promote uptake. Moreover, agreements centred on biodiversity, carbon, or forest multifunctionality attract higher participation than timber- or water-focused aims. Although trust between the actors is often considered important in the literature, we did not consistently detect such effects on participation rates. The results indicate a more consistent interest among forest owners in BES agreements after 2012, especially those centred on biodiversity and carbon aims as well as on multifunctionality, potentially reflecting broader policy trends and shifts in motivation among younger generations of forest owners, moving away from timber production. These insights offer practical lessons for policymakers and practitioners aiming to design effective, targeted incentives that leverage Europe’s privately owned forests to meet biodiversity and climate objectives.