A comparative study of chemical, organic, and biofertilizers in Indian agriculture: Productivity, cost, and environmental sustainability

Fertilizers play a central role in sustaining agricultural productivity and food security in India, yet the environmental and economic tradeoffs across fertilizer types remain a pressing policy concern. This study compares chemical, organic, and biofertilizers used in Indian agriculture with respect to nutrient composition, cost efficiency, yield performance, and environmental impact, drawing on secondary data from government reports, research journals, and agricultural institutions. The analysis shows that chemical fertilizers such as urea, DAP, and NPK deliver rapid nutrient availability and higher short term yields in crops like rice, wheat, and vegetables, but their sustained use is linked to soil degradation, water pollution, carbon emissions, and biodiversity loss. Organic fertilizers, including compost, farmyard manure, and vermicompost, enhance soil structure, water retention, and long term fertility, though nutrient release is slower and initial yield gains are modest. Biofertilizers, based on microorganisms such as Rhizobium, Azotobacter, and Azospirillum, improve nutrient availability at low cost with minimal ecological damage, but face storage and shelf life constraints. Fertilizer consumption data from 2013 to 2025 indicate that chemical fertilizers continue to dominate the Indian market, accounting for roughly 83 percent of market share, even as awareness of organic and biofertilizer alternatives grows. The comparative evidence suggests that integrated nutrient management, combining all three fertilizer types, yields better productivity and soil sustainability outcomes than reliance on any single type. The study concludes that balanced and integrated fertilizer policy is essential for achieving productivity growth alongside environmental protection and long term soil health in India.