Advances in Geotechnical Monitoring Technologies for Tailings Storage Facilities in the U.S.: A Systematic Review

Tailings storage facilities (TSFs) pose significant geotechnical and environmental risks that requires advanced and reliable monitoring systems capable of detecting early signs instability. This systematic review synthesizes evidence from 26 studies published between 2020 and 2026 to evaluate recent advances in geotechnical monitoring technologies for tailings storage facilities (TSFs), with a particular focus on their application within the United States. Five major technology categories were identified: satellite InSAR (Sentinel-1, SBAS-InSAR), UAV-based imaging and photogrammetry, distributed and point sensors (DAS, MEMS, ERT), AI and machine learning for predictive analytics, and integrated visualization early warning systems. Satellite InSAR provides millimeter-scale deformation monitoring at 6-12-day intervals but cannot capture subsurface changes. UAV imaging achieves sub-centimeter erosion mapping but is weather-dependent. DAS and ERT offer high-resolution internal monitoring but require permanent installations. AI classifiers have demonstrated >85% accuracy for hazard prediction, yet require large labeled datasets and face interpretability challenges. U.S.-specific adoption remains limited due to economic barriers, regulatory fragmentation, and workforce expertise gaps, despite climate-induced stressors that increase failure risks. The review concludes that no single monitoring technology can adequately address all TSF safety challenges. Future priorities include prospective validation of integrated systems at U.S. TSFs, development of interpretable AI models, shared industry data repositories, and performance-based regulatory frameworks. Without deliberate investment, U.S. TSFs will remain vulnerable to preventable failures.