Searching for the Democratic Disconnect: Unequal and Ambivalent Political Support Along Social Divides in Europe

Has public commitment to democracy declined in Europe? Which social groups display the lowest levels of support? Despite extensive debate on an alleged democratic crisis, systematic evidence on variation across countries and socio-demographic divides remains limited. This study addresses this gap by analysing multiple data sources and indicators, building on findings that citizens hold ambivalent regime attitudes, simultaneously supporting democratic ideals while remaining open to authoritarian alternatives. First, we draw on the European Values Study and the World Values Survey to assess trends in democratic versus authoritarian regime preferences in eight European democracies over the past three decades (N ≈ 55,000). We trace trajectories and cross-national differences, disaggregating by gender, age, and education. While abstract support for democracy remains stable, significant socio-demographic gaps emerge, with educational divides reflecting deeper differences in regime preferences and notable contextual variation. Second, using an original comparative survey from 2025 (N ≈ 15,000) and a liberal-democracy scale, we show that higher education is positively associated with commitment to liberal-democratic principles, whereas younger and female respondents tend to score lower. The combination of both datasets helps document how this ambivalence is socially structured, most consistently along educational lines. This article contributes to the literature by blending a wider array of data and indicators and shedding light on the role of socio-demographic gaps in political support. While it highlights the importance of education, the effects of other factors appear more context-dependent, varying across countries, time, and operationalisation.