Gender Equality as Foundational to Democracy: Theory and Evidence of Gendered Political Culture(s)

Mainstream research in political culture treats democracy in a gender-blind way. Building on the feminist argument that democracy and gender equality are co-constitutional, we introduce a concept of gendered political culture and explore its contemporary manifestations. To this aim, we develop a typology of integrated and fragmented political cultures based on four attitudinal combinations (support for/opposition to democracy/gender equality). Using Austria as a crucial case study and a mixed-methods research design, we also test it empirically. Our findings reveal both promise and concerns. Focus groups show Austrians support both democracy and gender equality. Yet democracy is mainly understood through a gender-blind lens that invisibilizes structural inequalities. At the same time, quantitative analysis reveals the co-existence of distinct gendered political cultures. We find that 32% of Austrians hold beliefs consistent with an integrated democratic political culture, strongly supporting both democracy and gender equality. However, 35% have beliefs in line with a fragmented democratic culture. They support democracy but are ambivalent toward gender equality. Among those with authoritarian-leaning attitudes, 21% support gender equality, while 12% do not, offering evidence of fragmented and integrated authoritarian political cultures. Men, FPÖ voters, younger individuals, and less educated respondents are significantly less likely to hold beliefs consistent with an integrated democratic political culture. The prevalence of a fragmented democratic culture reveals vulnerability to anti-gender equality campaigns that accompany democratic backsliding. Gender-blind frameworks in political culture research mask this risk. Measuring support for “androcracy” systematically overestimates democratic resilience. To understand why/how/with whom de-democratizing attacks on gender equality resonate, one needs to gender political culture research.