Explaining the Surge in Citizenship Applications in the 1990s: Lawful Permanent Residents in Texas

Objective. We explore the increase in citizenship applications in the mid–1990s in order to test popular explanations for them, such as the consequences of IRCA legalization, fear of loss of public benefits, and effects of citizenship outreach programs. Methods. We rely on a nonrandom sample of 526 lawful permanent residents in four Texas cities. About half had applied for citizenship and all were taking affirmative steps via participation in citizenship or English–language classes. Results. Having received amnesty under IRCA predicts rapid application for citizenship upon eligibility but is not associated with greater mastery of the naturalization process or better English skills. Fear of losing eligibility for public benefits and campaigns promoting naturalization motivated about one–quarter of citizenship applicants. Much larger proportions cite their desire to participate fully in American life, to sponsor the immigration of relatives, and to ensure opportunities for their children. The main obstacle they identify is limited English proficiency. Conclusions. Although factors peculiar to the political environment of the 1990s affected many permanent residents, most cited traditional incentives having to do with investment in opportunities for themselves and their families. Our data suggest that the most effective way to facilitate naturalization is to devote more resources to English–language training.