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Apophenia in Policymaking: Exploring the Tendency to See Imaginary Patterns in Modern Governance

Author

Listed:
  • Mehdi Khosravi
  • Hassan Danaeefard
  • Tahere Babazade

Abstract

This article introduces apophonic policies as a type of government failure that is rooted in the innate/cognitive human tendency to see meaningful but imaginary patterns among random data. By reviewing theories from cognitive psychology, sociology of knowledge, philosophy of science, and complexity theory, the article presents five levels of analysis (individual, group, institutional, discursive, and technological) to explain the emergence and institutionalization of apophenia in the policymaking process. Diagnostic indicators (such as the weakening of conflicting evidence, simplistic narratives, concentration of power, lack of data transparency, and the illusion of algorithmic objectivity) are introduced and operationalized in a diagnostic matrix. Four case studies, including the “War on Drugs,” the “War on Terror,” “Crime Prediction Algorithms,” and “Energiewende” illustrate the role of apophenia in producing unintended consequences and reinforcing inequality. Finally, a set of practical propositions, including polyvocality, epistemic transparency, cognitive resilience, and the human‐centricity of technology, are proposed as strategies for reducing the risks of apophenia. 本文将政策错觉(aophenia policies)定义为一种政府失灵,其根源在于人类与生俱来的认知倾向,即在随机数据中发现有意义但虚构的模式。通过回顾认知心理学、知识社会学、科学哲学和复杂性理论,本文提出了五个分析层面(个体、群体、制度、话语和技术),以解释政策制定过程中错觉的出现和制度化。本文引入并操作化了诊断指标(例如,削弱相互矛盾的证据、简化叙事、权力集中、缺乏数据透明度以及算法客观性的错觉)。四个案例研究,包括“禁毒战争”、“反恐战争”、“犯罪预测算法”和“能源转型”,阐明了错觉在产生意想不到的后果和加剧不平等方面的作用。最后,本文提出了一系列切实可行的建议,包括多元发声、认知透明、认知韧性以及以人为本的技术,作为降低政策失灵风险的策略。 Este artículo presenta las políticas apofónicas como un tipo de falla gubernamental que se basa en la tendencia humana innata/cognitiva a ver patrones significativos pero imaginarios entre datos aleatorios. Mediante la revisión de teorías de la psicología cognitiva, la sociología del conocimiento, la filosofía de la ciencia y la teoría de la complejidad, el artículo presenta cinco niveles de análisis (individual, grupal, institucional, discursivo y tecnológico) para explicar el surgimiento e institucionalización de la apofenia en el proceso de formulación de políticas. Se introducen indicadores de diagnóstico (como el debilitamiento de la evidencia contradictoria, las narrativas simplistas, la concentración de poder, la falta de transparencia de los datos y la ilusión de objetividad algorítmica) y se operacionalizan en una matriz de diagnóstico. Cuatro estudios de caso, que incluyen la “Guerra contra las Drogas”, la “Guerra contra el Terrorismo”, los “Algoritmos de Predicción del Crimen” y la “Energiewende”, ilustran el papel de la apofenia en la producción de consecuencias imprevistas y el refuerzo de la desigualdad. Finalmente, se propone un conjunto de propuestas prácticas, entre ellas la polivocalidad, la transparencia epistémica, la resiliencia cognitiva y la centralidad humana de la tecnología, como estrategias para reducir los riesgos de apofenia.

Suggested Citation

  • Mehdi Khosravi & Hassan Danaeefard & Tahere Babazade, 2026. "Apophenia in Policymaking: Exploring the Tendency to See Imaginary Patterns in Modern Governance," Review of Policy Research, Policy Studies Organization, vol. 43(3), May.
  • Handle: RePEc:bla:revpol:v:43:y:2026:i:3:n:e70093
    DOI: 10.1111/ropr.70093
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