Classical Realism, Practices, and Paradiplomacy: The International Activities of Canadian Provinces

This article proposes a general theory of paradiplomacy based on Hans J. Morgenthau's classical realism (emphasizing emotions) and practices. It tests this theory on Canadian provincial international activities from 1945 to 2020. Morgenthau conceives of politics as a struggle for love and power that is universal but pluralistic in its social manifestations. Practices can be found everywhere, so variegated paradiplomacy practices are a global inevitability. The article argues that the provinces filter paradiplomacy through a distinct practice called the “diplomatic tradition of Canadian federalism” as one way of engaging in domestic power politics. The article distills the practice background into a three‐part social mechanism—asymmetry, ambiguity, and accommodation—and in the case study confirms it using a version of process tracing and practitioner interviews. The article's theory is not only plausible; it is also necessary because the paradiplomacy field lacks a theory on which to found assumptions that can be integrated into IR paradigms and trajectories, such as emotions, practices, and the renewed interest in classical realism.