An Investigation of the Biosorption Process of Methylene Blue Dye Using Non-Activated and Activated Cow Hooves as Adsorbents: An Adsorption Isotherm Study

The pollution of water bodies by harmful industrial waste has emerged as a significant environmental issue in recent years. Among the various pollutants released into aquatic environments, synthetic dyes like methylene blue are particularly worrisome because of their toxicity, resistance to degradation, and long-lasting presence (Tripathy et al., 2025). These dyes are extensively utilized in industries like textiles, paper, and plastics, and their untreated discharge into the environment leads to considerable harm to ecosystems while posing serious health hazards to both humans and aquatic organisms. Tackling this problem demands the development of inventive, effective, and affordable methods for water treatment (Muduli et al., 2023) Traditional approaches for removing dyes, such as chemical precipitation, membrane filtration, and advanced oxidation techniques, frequently face challenges like expensive operations, the production of secondary pollutants, and intricate technical requirements (Kumari et al., 2024). On the other hand, adsorption processes have emerged as a highly effective and affordable method for eliminating dyes and other pollutants from wastewater. Adsorption is a surface-driven process that utilizes the attractive interactions between pollutants in a solution and adsorbent materials, allowing for the effective removal of harmful substances (Nagendran et al., 2025).