Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants: Molecular Mechanisms and Biotechnological Advances

Abiotic stress factors—including drought, salinity, extreme temperatures, and heavy metal exposure—pose serious threats to global agricultural productivity and food security. In response, plants have developed complex physiological and molecular systems to detect and counteract these environmental challenges. Key components include dynamic signaling pathways, efficient reactive oxygen species (ROS) detoxification mechanisms, regulation of gene expression by specialized transcription factors, and accumulation of osmoprotectants to maintain cellular balance. Breakthroughs in omics-based technologies and precise gene-editing platforms such as CRISPR/Cas have accelerated the identification and functional analysis of genes linked to stress resistance. Moreover, emerging insights into epigenetic modulation and stress memory suggest additional layers of adaptive regulation. This review consolidates recent findings on the molecular frameworks of abiotic stress resilience in plants and evaluates current biotechnological strategies to enhance crop tolerance. We also highlight future directions that integrate synthetic biology, nanotechnology, and systems-level approaches to address agricultural challenges under climate variability.