Effects of Adoption of Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices on Productivity and Income of Smallholder Maize Farmers in North East Sub-District, Botswana

Smallholder maize farmers in Botswana experience major constraints from climatic variability, resulting in low production and productivity. The climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices are promising options to increase productivity and income, but there is poor adoption due to some constraints. The objective of this study was to identify the CSA practices practiced by farmers, analyse factors that influence the adoption of these practices, and assess the impact on productivity and income. Based on utility maximization and innovation diffusion theories, a multistage sampling technique was utilised for data collection from 384 maize farmers by using semi-structured questionnaires. Descriptive and inferential statistics, including, multivariate probit model (MVP) for adoption factors and the multinomial endogenous switching regression model (MESR) of impact, were used in the analysis. We analysed four main CSA practices: crop rotation, maize-legume diversification, improved seeds, and fertiliser application. Results showed that maize-legume intercropping was the highest practice adopted (70%), and application of fertilisers ranked the lowest (55%). The interviewed farmers were mostly women (60 %) and mainly between 36 and 50 years of age, and with more than 10 years of farming experience. Farm experience, education, group membership, distance to market, and land size were the important determinants for CSA adoption. In addition, the selection of particular practice combinations was affected by education, farm size, livestock holding information sources and channels to get to market, as well as land tenure types. The primary finding of the study is that an integrated combination of dependent CSA practices has a positive impact on maize productivity and income. These findings highlight the critical need for governments and development organisations to use innovative and tailored extension services to promote the implementation of CSA practices among smallholder farmers.