Kuznets Curve Hypothesis: New Evidence from Comparison of E-Waste and Carbon Dioxide Kuznets Curves

Although the empirical literature on the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) is well-established for carbon dioxide emissions, it remains relatively limited for other forms of pollution, particularly electronic waste. This study reviews the existing literature on the Kuznets Curve and tests the EKC hypothesis for two types of pollution; electronic waste and carbon dioxide emissions. For this purpose, the Feasible Generalized Least Squares (FGLS) method was applied to data from 28 European countries over the period 2002-2020, based on available statistical data. The findings confirm the EKC hypothesis for both pollution types. The estimated threshold for electronic waste is $89,267.68, while the threshold for carbon dioxide emissions is $64,622.64, which is lower than the threshold for electronic waste. Consequently, the threshold for electronic waste occurs at a higher GDP per capita compared to carbon dioxide emissions, indicating that the harmful effects of electronic waste are still not fully understood or addressed. Additional results suggest that ICT exports, economic structure, and governance have contributed to the reduction of electronic waste, while technological development and population growth have increased it. In contrast, technological progress and population growth have reduced carbon dioxide emissions, while ICT exports and economic structure have contributed to rising air pollution. The main recommendation of this study is the international commitment to implement standards that reduce all types of pollution in all economic and social dimensions.