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Why Do Women Earn Less than Men? Evidence from Bus and Train Operators

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  • Valentin Bolotnyy
  • Natalia Emanuel

Abstract

Female workers earn $0.89 for each male-worker dollar even in a unionized workplace, where tasks, wages, and promotion schedules are identical for men and women by design. Using administrative time-card data on bus and train operators, we show that this earnings gap can be explained by female operators taking fewer hours of overtime and more hours of unpaid time off than male operators. Female operators, especially those with dependents, pursue schedule conventionality, predictability, and controllability more than male operators. While reducing schedule controllability can limit the earnings gap, it can also hurt female workers and their productivity.

Suggested Citation

  • Valentin Bolotnyy & Natalia Emanuel, 2022. "Why Do Women Earn Less than Men? Evidence from Bus and Train Operators," Journal of Labor Economics, University of Chicago Press, vol. 40(2), pages 283-323.
    • Handle: RePEc:ucp:jlabec:doi:10.1086/715835
    DOI: 10.1086/715835
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    Cited by:

    1. Wasserman, Melanie & Price, Brendan, 2022. "The Summer Drop in Female Employment," CEPR Discussion Papers 17354, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
    2. Agnès Charpin & Josep Amer-Mestre & Noémi Berlin & Magali Dumontet, 2024. "Gender Differences in Early Occupational Choices: Evidence from Medical Specialty Selection," EconomiX Working Papers 2024-5, University of Paris Nanterre, EconomiX.
    3. Cody Cook & Rebecca Diamond & Jonathan V Hall & John A List & Paul Oyer, 2021. "The Gender Earnings Gap in the Gig Economy: Evidence from over a Million Rideshare Drivers [Measuring the Gig Economy: Current Knowledge and Open Issues]," The Review of Economic Studies, Review of Economic Studies Ltd, vol. 88(5), pages 2210-2238.
    4. Corradini, Viola & Lagos, Lorenzo & Sharma, Garima, 2022. "Collective Bargaining for Women: How Unions Can Create Female-Friendly Jobs," IZA Discussion Papers 15552, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    5. Brunello, Giorgio & De Paola, Maria & Rocco, Lorenzo, 2023. "Pension Reforms, Longer Working Horizons and Absence from Work," IZA Discussion Papers 15871, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    6. Adams-Prassl, Abigail, 2020. "The Gender Wage Gap on an Online Labour Market: The Cost of Interruptions," CEPR Discussion Papers 14294, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
    7. Thomas Le Barbanchon & Roland Rathelot & Alexandra Roulet, 2021. "Gender Differences in Job Search: Trading off Commute against Wage," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Oxford University Press, vol. 136(1), pages 381-426.
    8. Jakob Alfitian & Marvin Deversi & Dirk Sliwka, 2023. "Closing the Gender Gap in Salary Increases: Evidence from a Field Experiment on Promoting Pay Equity," ECONtribute Discussion Papers Series 244, University of Bonn and University of Cologne, Germany.
    9. Grissom, Jason A. & Timmer, Jennifer D. & Nelson, Jennifer L. & Blissett, Richard S.L., 2021. "Unequal pay for equal work? Unpacking the gender gap in principal compensation," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 82(C).
    10. Elizabeth Lyons & Laurina Zhang, 2023. "Salary transparency and gender pay inequality: Evidence from Canadian universities," Strategic Management Journal, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 44(8), pages 2005-2034, August.
    11. Lochner, Benjamin & Merkl, Christian, 2022. "Gender-specific application behavior, matching, and the residual gender earnings gap," FAU Discussion Papers in Economics 04/2022, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Institute for Economics.
    12. Alfitian, Jakob & Deversi, Marvin & Sliwka, Dirk, 2023. "Closing the Gender Gap in Salary Increases: Evidence from a Field Experiment on Promoting Pay Equity," IZA Discussion Papers 16278, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    13. Julian Johnsen & Hyejin Ku & Kjell G. Salvanes, 2023. "Competition and Career Advancement," CESifo Working Paper Series 10577, CESifo.

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