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Parent–Child Relationships from Adolescence to Adulthood: An Examination of Children’s and Parent’s Reports of Intergenerational Solidarity by Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Socioeconomic Status from 1994–2018 in the United States

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  • Xing Zhang

    (College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA)

  • Annaliese Grant

    (Department of Sociology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA)

Abstract

Background: Parent–child relationships are increasingly central in family life due to the delayed transition to adulthood. Methods: Using data from Add Health and the Add Health Parent Study from 1994–2018, we examine changes in parent–child relationships reported by the child and the parent across gender, race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES) from ages 12–43 years old. We examine three broad categories of intergenerational solidarity: Affectual (closeness, relationship quality, and emotional support), associational (satisfaction with communication), and functional (financial and instrumental support). Results: For the overall sample, parent–child closeness remains high but decreases from ages 12–43. By gender, we find that daughters report lower relationship quality with their mothers and fathers in adolescence. By race and ethnicity, we find that parent–child closeness is highest among Black respondents. By SES, we find that respondents whose mothers attained less than a high school degree report the greatest mother–child closeness. Conclusions: Overall, parents remain an important source of emotional, instrumental, and financial support in the transition to adulthood, especially for Black and low-SES adolescents. It is important to pay attention to the intersectional nature of the parent–child relationship with regard to the timing of the life course and race, ethnicity, gender, and SES.

Suggested Citation

  • Xing Zhang & Annaliese Grant, 2023. "Parent–Child Relationships from Adolescence to Adulthood: An Examination of Children’s and Parent’s Reports of Intergenerational Solidarity by Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Socioeconomic Status from 19," Social Sciences, MDPI, vol. 12(5), pages 1-19, April.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jscscx:v:12:y:2023:i:5:p:266-:d:1136862
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Daniel Lichter, 2013. "Integration or Fragmentation? Racial Diversity and the American Future," Demography, Springer;Population Association of America (PAA), vol. 50(2), pages 359-391, April.
    2. Udry, J.R. & Li, R.M. & Hendrickson-Smith, J., 2003. "Health and Behavior Risks of Adolescents with Mixed-Race Identity," American Journal of Public Health, American Public Health Association, vol. 93(11), pages 1865-1870.
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