Referendum as a policy instrument to enhance energy democracy in formulating energy transition path, agenda, and policies: A case study of Taiwan's referendums in 2018 and 2021

This study explores whether energy policy-related referendum initiatives in Taiwan can serve as effective policy instruments for the public to participate democratically in the formulation of energy policy and transition. Taiwan's conventional energy policy-making process is top-down, determined by the government, politicians, and experts. This process was challenged by five bottom-up energy-related referendum initiatives in 2018 and 2021, demanding a reduction in coal-fired electricity generation, electricity generation from nuclear energy instead, and an end to the expansion of large-scale fossil fuel energy infrastructure. The preferences of the general public and government for the energy transition agenda were in conflict. The results show that referendum is an effective and socially integrated policy instrument for enhancing energy democracy and guiding governmental energy transition in Taiwan, particularly by resisting the government's dominant coal-based energy agenda and facilitating a restructuring of the energy sector against various social and contextual pressures on energy preferences and contested policy goals. This bottom-up, exogenous rather than endogenous, and forced rather than voluntary energy policy formulation model corresponds to the international discussion on how energy democracy can change traditional structural power relations between the government and citizens in energy policy formulation and transition.