Mutual learning between Japanese managers and foreign subordinates: Enablers for middle-up-down management under role definition flexibility at Japanese headquarters

The number of foreign workers at Japanese companies has increased in recent years. Whereas this trend has been promoted by the policies of the Japanese government, Japanese companies face many difficulties in cross-cultural management. This study aimed to reveal how Japanese managers can modify their mindset and behaviours to adopt middle-up-down management for their foreign subordinates. Nine factors were coded from the interview surveys with ten pairs of Japanese managers and their foreign subordinates. Given the nine factors, a hypothetical conceptual framework was developed based on the three-step cultural synergy model. This conceptual framework offers some new perspectives to cross-cultural management theory. First, the homogeneous culture of Japanese companies could be replaced by cultural synergy and inclusive leadership to apply middle-up-down management with role definition flexibility to foreign subordinates. Second, cultural synergy and inclusive leadership could be more effective in Japanese than Western human resource management. These findings need to be fully examined in future research.