Models of Transitions in Middle and Later Life

The topic of change during adulthood is receiving increased attention from social and behavioral scientists, as well as from the general public. This article describes and evaluates the contributions of four types of models designed to further our understanding of the causes and consequences of change during middle and later life: developmental models, life event models, adult socialization models, and integrated models that incorporate elements of multiple perspectives. Special attention is devoted to the recent and appropriate shift from an emphasis upon change as crisis to the more neutral view of change as transition. Two issues are suggested as critical to any useful model of change during middle and later life. First, such models must incorporate recognition of the importance of both individual and social factors for understanding the causes and consequences of change. Second, such models must identify the factors that place individuals at risk for adaptive problems as a result of change.