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Loneliness during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of Urban and Rural Areas

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  • Abdul-Salam Sulemana

    (School of Economics, Hiroshima University, 1-2-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima 7398525, Japan)

  • Trinh Xuan Thi Nguyen

    (School of Economics, Hiroshima University, 1-2-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima 7398525, Japan)

  • Sumeet Lal

    (School of Economics, Hiroshima University, 1-2-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima 7398525, Japan)

  • Mostafa Saidur Rahim Khan

    (School of Economics, Hiroshima University, 1-2-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima 7398525, Japan)

  • Yoshihiko Kadoya

    (School of Economics, Hiroshima University, 1-2-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima 7398525, Japan)

Abstract

Although studies have explored how loneliness varies between rural and urban areas during the COVID-19 pandemic, the results have been inconsistent, and most studies are observational. Therefore, it remains unclear how urban–rural differences affected loneliness in a pandemic. Our study uses nationwide data to clarify this, covering periods before and during the pandemic. We analyze a longitudinal dataset from Hiroshima University’s Household Behavior and Finance Survey, which collected demographic, socioeconomic, and psychological characteristics of Japanese adults in 2020, 2021, and 2022, thus reflecting the COVID-19 pandemic timeline. The results show that approximately 50% of those surveyed experienced long-term loneliness, while about 6.5% developed loneliness during the pandemic. Although our weighted logit regression models showed few differences in loneliness during the pandemic between urban and rural areas, socioeconomic changes, such as beginning to live alone, leaving full-time employment, and decreased financial satisfaction, were identified as high-risk factors for loneliness, and their impact varied between rural and urban areas. Our results reflect that rural–urban differences have an effect on people’s loneliness during a pandemic but need to be considered together with socioeconomic changes. This knowledge can aid governments and healthcare providers in identifying those most at risk of loneliness within urban–rural regional boundaries.

Suggested Citation

  • Abdul-Salam Sulemana & Trinh Xuan Thi Nguyen & Sumeet Lal & Mostafa Saidur Rahim Khan & Yoshihiko Kadoya, 2023. "Loneliness during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of Urban and Rural Areas," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(16), pages 1-12, August.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:15:y:2023:i:16:p:12218-:d:1214321
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    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Yoko Mayuzumi, 2023. "Survey of rural and urban happiness in Indonesia during the corona crisis," Asia-Pacific Journal of Regional Science, Springer, vol. 7(1), pages 29-67, March.
    2. Vanessa Burholt & Thomas Scharf, 2014. "Poor Health and Loneliness in Later Life: The Role of Depressive Symptoms, Social Resources, and Rural Environments," The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, The Gerontological Society of America, vol. 69(2), pages 311-324.
    3. Mostafa Saidur Rahim Khan & Yoshihiko Kadoya, 2021. "Loneliness during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison between Older and Younger People," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(15), pages 1-15, July.
    4. Trinh Xuan Thi Nguyen & Sumeet Lal & Sulemana Abdul-Salam & Pattaphol Yuktadatta & Louis McKinnon & Mostafa Saidur Rahim Khan & Yoshihiko Kadoya, 2022. "Has Smartphone Use Influenced Loneliness during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Japan?," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(17), pages 1-12, August.
    5. Mostafa Saidur Rahim Khan & Pattaphol Yuktadatta & Yoshihiko Kadoya, 2022. "Who Became Lonely during the COVID-19 Pandemic? An Investigation of the Socioeconomic Aspects of Loneliness in Japan," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(10), pages 1-18, May.
    6. Sumeet Lal & Trinh Xuan Thi Nguyen & Abdul-Salam Sulemana & Pattaphol Yuktadatta & Mostafa Saidur Rahim Khan & Yoshihiko Kadoya, 2022. "A Longitudinal Study on Loneliness during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Japan," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(18), pages 1-17, September.
    7. Vivian Isaac & Teresa Cheng & Louise Townsin & Hassan Assareh & Amy Li & Craig S. McLachlan, 2021. "Associations of the Initial COVID-19 Lockdown on Self-Reported Happiness and Worry about Developing Loneliness: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Rural, Regional, and Urban Australian Communities," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(18), pages 1-11, September.
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