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Characteristics and Risk Assessment of Environmentally Persistent Free Radicals (EPFRs) of PM 2.5 in Lahore, Pakistan

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  • Mushtaq Ahmad

    (State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
    Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand)

  • Jing Chen

    (State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China)

  • Qing Yu

    (State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China)

  • Muhammad Tariq Khan

    (State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
    Department of Science and Environmental Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong, Taipo, New Territories, Hong Kong, China)

  • Syed Weqas Ali

    (Department of Environmental Sciences, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan 23200, Pakistan)

  • Asim Nawab

    (State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China)

  • Worradorn Phairuang

    (Faculty of Geosciences and Civil Engineering, Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Ishikawa, Japan)

  • Sirima Panyametheekul

    (Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
    Thailand Network Centre on Air Quality Management: TAQM, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
    Research Unit: HAUS IAQ, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand)

Abstract

Environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) are an emerging pollutant and source of oxidative stress. Samples of PM 2.5 were collected at the urban sites of Lahore in both winter and summertime of 2019. The chemical composition of PM 2.5 , EPRF concentration, OH radical generation, and risk assessment of EPFRs in PM 2.5 were evaluated. The average concentration of PM 2.5 in wintertime and summertime in Lahore is 15 and 4.6 times higher than the national environmental quality standards (NEQS) of Pakistan and WHO. The dominant components of PM 2.5 are carbonaceous species. The concentration of EPFRs and reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as OH radicals, is higher in the winter than in the summertime. The secondary inorganic ions do not contribute to the generation of OH radicals, although the contribution of SO 4 2+ , NO 3 − , and NH 4 + to the mass concentration of PM 2.5 is greater in summertime. The atmospheric EPFRs are used to evaluate the exposure risk. The EPFRs in PM 2.5 and cigarette smoke have shown similar toxicity to humans. In winter and summer, the residents of Lahore inhaled the amount of EPFRs equivalent to 4.0 and 0.6 cigarettes per person per day, respectively. Compared to Joaquin County, USA, the residents of Lahore are 1.8 to 14.5 times more exposed to EPFRs in summer and wintertime. The correlation analysis of atmospheric EPFRs (spin/m 3 ) and carbonaceous species of PM 2.5 indicates that coal combustion, biomass burning, and vehicle emissions are the possible sources of EPFRs in the winter and summertime. In both winter and summertime, metallic and carbonaceous species correlated well with OH radical generation, suggesting that vehicular emissions, coal combustion, and industrial emissions contributed to the OH radical generation. The study’s findings provide valuable information and data for evaluating the potential health effects of EPFRs in South Asia and implementing effective air pollution control strategies.

Suggested Citation

  • Mushtaq Ahmad & Jing Chen & Qing Yu & Muhammad Tariq Khan & Syed Weqas Ali & Asim Nawab & Worradorn Phairuang & Sirima Panyametheekul, 2023. "Characteristics and Risk Assessment of Environmentally Persistent Free Radicals (EPFRs) of PM 2.5 in Lahore, Pakistan," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(3), pages 1-16, January.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:20:y:2023:i:3:p:2384-:d:1050218
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    References listed on IDEAS

    as
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